European leaders have said they would prefer to negotiate. If that fails, their response could go beyond anything they’ve tried before.

Leaders in the Czech Republic and Poland signalled a readiness on Thursday to retaliate to new U.S. tariffs, while Hungary blamed Brussels for tensions with Washington, as central Europe began counting the likely costs of a trade war.

Some Europeans have acknowledged U.S. grievances over trade but wonder whether the Trump administration is truly serious about finding a middle ground.